Examples of Early and Middle Holocene human burials from southern China. This figure shows six human burials from Huiyaotian (A: M14, B: M19, C: M20) in Nanning and Liyupo (D: M23, E: M24, F: M28) in Long’an, both shell-midden sites located in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. All individuals are in flexed positions, with several exhibiting hyper-flexed postures (A and E: male, B–D and F: female). (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)
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The world’s oldest mummies have been discovered – with some smoke-dried bodies dating back a staggering 12,000 years.
Experts from The Australian National University, in Canberra, Australia, including Hsiao-chun Hung and Hirofumi Matsumura, studied remains from dozens of sites across Southeast Asia.
The team found that many bodies from pre-neolithic burials were preserved by being smoke-dried over fire for long periods – a process similar to those later recorded in Australian and New Guinea societies.
Some of the samples are now thought to be the earliest known examples of artificial mummification anywhere in the world, as reported by Need To Know.
Examples of Early and Middle Holocene flexed burials from northern Vietnam. (A) Burial 80M27 from the Con Co Ngua shell midden; (B) Burial M16 from Mai Da Dieu Cave, both located in Thanh Hoa Province. (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)
Experts believe smoking was the most effective way to preserve corpses in tropical climates, where heat and humidity would have quickly caused bodies to decompose.
But the study suggests it wasn’t just about preservation.
The careful, consistent treatment of the dead hints at spiritual and cultural reasons behind the practice.
Among the Anga people, for instance, it was believed that the spirits of the dead roamed freely during the day before returning to the mummified body at night.
Examples of smoked mummies kept in private households in Papua, Indonesia, photographed in January 2019. (A) A Dani hyper-flexed mummy; (B) A flexed mummy from Pumo Village. Both locations are in Wamena, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua. (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)
Meanwhile, groups such as the Taramindjeri of South Australia thought mummification was linked to the hope of immortality.
The researchers say the findings shed new light on the rituals, beliefs and symbolism surrounding death in some of the world’s earliest societies.
The findings were published on Monday (15 September) in the scientific journal PNAS.
Examples of hyper-flexed burials with partially burned bones from southern China and Indonesia. (A and B) Burial M35, a young male from Liyupo in Guangxi, with its partially burned skull; (C and D) Burial ST1 from Song Terus Cave in Java, showing its partially burned left femur, tibia, and humerus (C: replica; D: courtesy Indonesian-French Joint Prehistory Program). (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)Examples of burials from Huiyaotian (HYT), Guangxi in southern China, previously suspected to be dismembered. HYT-M29 (adult female): the hip and knee are positioned adjacent to each other, which is an anatomically impossible orientation. HYT-M56 (adult male): the backbone lies face upwards, but the hip lies prone, again an anatomically impossible orientation. HYT-M15 (child aged 3 to 5 y): highly compacted and bundled bones. (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)M26, a tightly flexed human burial from Huiyaotian, Guangxi, southern China. (A) Skeletal position of a middle-aged male, and (B) surface scan of Burial M26. The mostly complete skeleton retains its original articulated position. The pelvis lies on the ground, while the Right and Left femora are nearly vertical, with their distal ends oriented upward. Both knees are strongly flexed, positioning the feet just medial to the hip joints, and the foot bones are largely intact. The shoulders, rib cage, and upper limbs have collapsed downward, but the positions of the humerus, radius, and ulna indicate that the arms were crossed beneath the thighs, with each hand placed under the opposite knee. Overall, the body is folded in an extremely compact manner (28). (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)Standardized FTIR absorption spectra (710 to 490 cm?1) of human bone samples, color-coded by CI values. Tested samples include those from Gaomiao, Huiyaotian, and Liyupo in China; Hang Mang Chieng, Mai Da Dieu, Con Co Ngua, and Hon Hai Co Tien in Vietnam; as well as additional samples from Cai Beo, Hang Diem, and Hang Cho (Vietnam), and Gua Harimau (Indonesia). (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)Recorded hunter-gatherer sites with flexed and squatting burials in Southeastern Asia from the Late Pleistocene to the Middle Holocene. 1. Gaomiao, 2. Niupodong, 3. Zhaoguodong, 4. Qihedong*, 5. Daowei 1, 6. Xiaoma, 7. Jiaoziyan, 8. Zengpiyan, 9. Miaoyan, 10. Dayan, 11. Xingyi, 12.Baida, 13. Gexinqiao, 14. Beidaling, 15. Liyuzui, 16. Fengyan, 17. Huangmenyan, 18. Xiankezhou, 19. Baxun, 20. Liyupo, 21. Changtang, 22. Lingwu, 23. Huiyaotian, 24. Qingshan, 25. Dingsishan, 26. Qiujiang, 27. Xijin, 28. Ganzao, 29. Hecun, 30. Jiangbian, 31. Chongtang, 32. Lang Cuom, 33. Mai Da Nguom, 34. Pho Binh Gia, 35. Hang Doi, 36. Dong Thuoc, 37. Hang To 1, 38. Hon Hai Co Tien, 39. Cai Beo, 40. Liyudun, 41. Dong Can, 42. Du Sang, 43. Lang Gao, 44. Hang Cho, 45. Hang Muoi, 46. Xom Trai, 47. Hang Mang Chieng, 48. Hang Con Moong, 49. Hang Diem, 50. Mai Da Dieu, 51. Mai Da Nuoc, 52. Hang Lang Bon, 53. Da But, 54. Con Co Ngua, 55. Banyan Valley Cave, 56. Spirit Cave, 57. Tham Lod, 58. Ban Rai, 59. Doi Pha Kan, 60. Ban Tha Si, 61. Quynh Van, 62. Pha Phen, 63. Yingdun, 64. Bau Du, 65. Krong No, 66. Bubog-1, 67. Ille Cave*, 68. Duyong Cave, 69. Sagung, 70. Moh Khiew, 71. Gua Kerbau, 72. Gua Kepah, 73. Gua Kajang, 74. Gua Teluk Kelawar, 75. Gua Gunung Runtuh, 76. Gua Peraling, 77. Gua Cha, 78. Niah Cave, 79. Kimanis, 80. Liang Tebo, 81. Keboboh Cave, 82. Gua Tengkorak, 83. Leang Panninge, 84. Cappalombo1, 85. Gua Harimau, 86. Gua Pawon, 87. Gua Braholo, 88. Song Tritis, 89. Song Terus, 90. Song Keplek, 91. Gua Lawa, 92. Song Gentong, 93. Tron Bon Lei, 94. Ratu Mali 2, 95. Liang Lembudu (*suspected flexed). (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)This study proposes a scenario for prehistoric smoke-drying mummification, drawing on both archaeological findings and ethnographic parallels from Papua. The illustration shows the multi-step process of smoke-drying mummification, as ascertained through our study. (A) Preparation for the smoking ritualcorpses were bound to varying degrees, often in a hyper-flexed position; (B) Processing the corpse could be bound (as shown in A) or unbound (as shown in B, based on a modern example in Papua New Guinea, see ref. 14), while placed above a low-temperature fire. In our Late PleistoceneMiddle Holocene examples, all individuals were bound; (C) Post-smoking treatment after the smoking was completed, then the smoked mummy was transferred to a residence, a specially constructed hut, a rock shelter, or a cave. In some cases, however, the mummy decayed due to prolonged exposure to open air. As seen in the example presented here, the head and body became separated; (D) Final burial the smoked mummy eventually was buried (see field photo in SI Appendix, Fig. S11). Most were intact at the time of burial. Some cases had decayed by this time in the process, and those remains were rearranged in the burial pit, sometimes appearing as suspected intentionally dismembered burials in the archaeological record. (Jam Press/Hirofumi Matsumura and Hsiao-chun Hung)
